Group+6

=Group 6: Biology= Amanda Eng Chen Wei Ting Cheryl Pay Bridget Hsu Lee Jiale Lisa Koh

**The Situation before the Scientific Revolution**

 * Influence from the Church**: In general, the Church forbade the dissection of human bodies, so it was difficult to obtain knowledge of the human body. The Church also claimed that [|Galen's] ideas were correct and there was no need for further investigation. Ignorance led to medieval doctors' misunderstandings and errors.
 * Religious beliefs:** People believed that life was controlled by God and his saints, and a plague such as the Black Death was seen as a punishment from God.
 * Superstitions**: Although many Medieval doctors continued to believe in the theory of the four humours, they also said disease was caused by demons, sin, bad smells, astrology and the stars, stagnant water, the Jewish people etc.
 * Surgery:** Done by untrained "barber surgeons". A medieval surgeon might cure an epileptic patient by trephining the skull to let the demon out.
 * People's behaviour:** Barbaric in nature. For example, they had many cruel practices such as torturing their captives with a huge variety of methods and they saw it as a legitimate means of justice.

**Timeline of Developments in Biology before the Scientific Revolution**
[Legend: ||||| - Animal Anatomy, ||||| - Evolution, ||||| - Botany, ||||| - Books Published, ||||| - Discoveries made through experimentation/ hypothesis (Scientific Method)] 520 BC - Alcmaeon of Croton distinguished veins from arteries and discovered the optic nerve. 450 BC - Sushruta writes the Sushruta Samhita, describing over 120 surgical instruments and 300 surgical procedures, classifies human surgery in 8 categories, and introduces cosmetic and plastic surgery. 450 BC - Xenophanes examined fossils and speculated on the evolution of life. 350 BC - Aristotle attempted a comprehensive classification of animals. His written works include Historion Animalium, a general biology of animals, De Partibus Animalium, a comparative anatomy and physiology of animals, and De Generatione Animalium, on developmental biology. 300 BC - Theophrastos (or Theophrastus) begins the systematic study of botany. 300 BC - Herophilos dissects the human body. 100 BC - Diocles wrote the oldest known anatomy book and was the first to use the term anatomy. 50-70 AD - Historia Naturalis by Pliny the Elder (Gaius Plinius Secundus) was published in 37 volumes. 130-200 AD - Claudius Galen wrote numerous treatises on human anatomy and transmitted Hippocratic medicine. 800 AD - Al-Jahiz describes the struggle for existence, introduces the idea of a food chain, and adheres to environmental determinism. 850 AD - Al-Dinawari is considered the founder of Arabic botany for his Book of Plants, in which he describes at least 637 plants and discussed plant evolution from its birth to its death, describing the phases of plant growth and the production of flowers and fruit. 900 AD - [|Rhazes] (865-925) discredits the Galenic theory of humorism using an experiment. 1010 AD - Avicenna (Abu Ali al Hussein ibn Abdallah ibn Sina) published The Canon of Medicine (Kitab al-Qanun fi al-tibb), in which he introduces clinical trials and clinical pharmacology, and which remains an authoritative text in European medical education up until the 17th century. 11 50 AD - Avenzoar adheres to experimental dissection and autopsy, which he carries out to prove that the skin disease scabies is caused by a parasite, a discovery which upsets the theory of humorism; and he also introduces experimental surgery, where animal testing is used to experiment with surgical techniques prior to using them on humans. 1200 AD - Abd-el-latif observes and examines a large number of skeletons during a famine in Egypt and he discovers that Galen was incorrect regarding the formation of the bones of the lower jaw and sacrum. 12 25 AD - Ibn al-Baitar, al-Nabati's student, wrote his Kitab al-Jami fi al-Adwiya al-Mufrada, a botanical and pharmaceutical encyclopedia describing 1,400 plants, foods, and drugs, 300 of which are his own original discoveries; a later Latin translation of his work is useful to European biologists and pharmacists in the 18th and 19th centuries. 12 42 AD - [|Ibn al-Nafis] publishes his Commentary on Anatomy in Avicenna's Canon, in which he discovers the pulmonary circulation and coronary circulation, which form the basis of the circulatory system. He was also influential in questioning the authority of Galen.

**Ti** **meline of Developments in Biology During The Scientific Revolution**
1519 - Leonardo Da Vinci made detailed drawings of the anatomy of the heart. 15 43 - Andreas Vesalius publishes the anatomy treatise De humani corporis fabrica. 1545 - Ambroise Paré published his first book 'The method of curing wounds caued by arquebus and firearms'. 1565 - Ambroise Paré proved that the bezoar stone could not cure all poisons. 1593 - Galileo discovered that objects (glass spheres filled with aqueous alcohol) of slightly different densities would rise and fall, resulting in the current Galileo thermometer. 1616 - William Harvey discovered and demonstrated that the circulation of blood through the human body is continuous. 16 28 - William Harvey publishes An Anatomical Exercise on the Motion of the Heart and Blood in Animals 1649 - Jan Baptist van Helmont performs his famous tree plant experiment in which he shows that the substance of a plant derives from water and air, the first description of photosynthesis. 16 51 - William Harvey concludes that all animals, including mammals, develop from eggs, and spontaneous generation of any animal from mud or excrement was an impossibility. This was also published. 1658 - Jan Swammerdam observes red blood cells under a microscope. 1665 - Robert Hooke's Micrographia was published. 1668 - Robert Hooke sees cells in cork using a microscope. 1668 - Francesco Redi disproves spontaneous generation by showing that fly maggots only appear on pieces of meat in jars if the jars are open to the air. Jars covered with cheesecloth contained no flies. 1671 - Marcello Malpighi pubishes the book //Anatomia Plantarum//. 1672 - Marcello Malpighi publishes the first description of chick development, including the formation of muscle somites, circulation, and nervous system. 1676 - Anton van Leeuwenhoek observes protozoa and calls them animalcules. 1683 - Anton van Leeuwenhoek observes spermatozoa. 1683 - Anton van Leeuwenhoek observes bacteria. Leeuwenhoek's discoveries renew the question of spontaneous generation in microorganisms

1742 - Anders Celsius proposed a scale with zero at the boiling point and 100 degrees at the melting point of water. 1767 - Kaspar Friedrich Wolff argues that the tissues of a developing chick form from nothing and are not simply elaborations of already-present structures in the egg. 1768 - Lazzaro Spallanzani again disproves spontaneous generation by showing that no organisms grow in a rich broth if it is first heated (to kill any organisms) and allowed to cool in a stoppered flask. He also shows that fertilization in mammals requires an egg and semen. 1771 - Joseph Priestley demonstrates that plants produce a gas that animals and flames consume. Those two gases are carbon dioxide and oxygen. 1798 - Thomas Malthus discusses human population growth and food production in An Essay on the Principle of Population.

**Aelius Galenus (Galen)**

 * Galen transmitted Hippocratic medicine all the way to the Renai ssance. His work on Hippocrates lay the foundation for Greek medicine.
 * Galen's knowledge was partially correct. He demonstrated that arteries carry blood, not air and made first studies about nerve functions, brain and heart. He made his discoveries through experiments, which is an aspect of the Scientific Method and reflects on the Scientific Revolution.

**William Harvey**

 * In 1616, William Harvey was the first to discover and demonstrate that the circulation of blood through the human body is continuous.
 * His discovery about blood circulating continuously through the human body:
 * was an important first step in the rejection of the physiology assumed by the students of Galen.
 * was the foundation for an entire field of science that focuses on the importance of the blood.
 * sparked curiosity regarding the questions of what exactly was carried by blood, where it was carried to and how it was discharged.
 * was the start of animal biology since Harvey's time, each generation achieving a more complete understanding of some aspect or other of the circulatory system, or other systems related to it.
 * In 1651, Harvey’s findings on embryology were published.They were an important contribution to medicine in the field of embryology. He was one of the first to study the development of the chick in the egg and able to perform dissections of mammal embryos at various stages of formation.
 * From these experiments Harvey was able to come up with the first new theory of generation since ancient times, emphasizing the primacy of the egg, even in mammals. His findings on generation were published in 1651 and became the foundation of the new science of embryology.

**Santorio Santorio and Galileo Galilei**

 * The thermometer was developed over the years, not a single invention.
 * Santorio adapted the thermometer and was the first to put a scale to it.
 * Galileo discovered that objects (glass spheres filled with aqueous alcohol) of slightly different densities would rise and fall. Thermometers of today are based on the principles that Galileo had discovered.
 * Other scientists then added on to this and the thermometer was formed. One of them was Anders Celsius. In 1742, he proposed a scale with zero at the boiling point and 100 degrees at the melting point of water, though the scale which now bears his name has them the other way around. Now, thermometers are widely used.

**Andreas Vesalius**

 * In 1536, he discovered the spermatic vessels and realised that Galen might be wrong.
 * In 1543, his masterpiece //On the Fabric of the Human Body// was published. Vesalius made unprecedented observations regarding the various shapes and sizes of the human skull, and also compares human skulls with the skulls of dogs, foreseeing anthropological themes that would not become widely studied until centuries after his time.
 * He published 'Anatomical Account of the Motion of the Heart and Blood', which scientifically proved the principle of the circulation of the blood. This book marked the end of Galen's influence on anatomy.
 * Vesalius’ discoveries were significant because:
 * It is considered the first great modern work of science, and the foundation of modern biology. Vesalius' drawings and descriptions of muscles are so accurate and unique that modern scientists return to them even today.
 * Vesalius were one of the men who were no longer content to rely on ancient authority for the truth. Instead, they sought to do their own observation, and their own experimentation, in order to see for themselves what the truth might actually be, reflecting on the aspect of changing perspectives during the Scientific Revolution.

**Robert Hooke**

 * In 1665, he published //Micrographia.//
 * It was impressive because unlike Aristotle who went through mere observation in his descriptions of animals and natural forces, He refined observations by means of specially designed apparatus, and set off minds in a context of addressed questions, only then could remarkable discoveries be made.
 * //Micrographia// not only provided a wealth of new data for science to consider, but showed how experimental investigations could be built upon them. For example, a seemingly simple observation of a piece of charcoal under the microscope could lead to a recognition of the presence of cells, to an investigation into burning, and to Hooke's work on the dissolving properties of aerial nitre. Therefore, Hooke’s discovery was significant.

**Marcello Malpighi**

 * Marcello made many significant human tissue related discoveries by observation with the microscope. He:
 * described the papillae of the tongue and skin--the receptors of the senses of taste and touch
 * described the structure ofthe kidney and suggested its function as a urine producer
 * identified that the nerves and spinal column both consisted of bundles of fibers
 * rejected a two thousand year old notion that bile was yellow and black when it was supposed to be of a uniformed colour
 * He went on to do research in plant and insect microscopy. His extensive studies of the silkworm were the first full examination of insect structure.
 * His detailed observations of chick embryos laid the foundation for microscopic embryology.
 * His botanical investigations established the science of plantanatomy.
 * The amazing variety of Malpighi's microscopic discoveries piqued the interest of countless other researchers and firmly established microscopy as a science.

**Ambroise Paré**

 * He advocated massage and designed a number of artificial limbs as well as an artificial eye.
 * He advanced obstetrics by reintroducing podalic version (turning a fetus in utero into a position possible for birth) and inducing premature labor in cases of uterine hemorrhage.
 * Through his discoveries, he advanced the status of surgery to a whole new level of prestige and professionalism. He is also known as the Father of Modern Surgery.

**Paracelsus**

 * Discovered that laudanum (a derivative of opium) was a painkiller that could be used to help his patients. For many years it was used for general pain such as headaches and period pain (and many people became addicted to it).

**Paracelsus (1493-1541)**
Also known as Philippus Aureolus Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim, Paracelsus was a physician and alchemist who made significant strides in the field of medicine. He was trained in overseeing mining operations and analyzing metals at a tender age, and his early understanding of metallurgy and chemistry is understood to have laid the groundwork for his later discoveries in the field of chemotherapy. He graduated from the University of Vienna, with a baccalaureate in medicine, and then attended the University of Ferrara where, he claimed, he received his doctorate in 1516 (for which year university records are missing). It is at Ferrara that he is believed to have begun using the name “para-Celsus” (“above or beyond Celsus”), because he saw himself as even greater than the first century Roman doctor of that name. After attaining his doctoral degree, Paracelsus began his journeys throughout Europe and Britain. When he returned to Europe in 1524, he took a post at the University of Basel, drawing students from all over Europe due to his reputation as a great doctor. Paracelsus scoffed at the common methods of treating wounds that prevented natural draining, lectured and wrote only in German instead of Latin, and even burned the books of Avicenna (the Arab “Prince of Physicians”), and Galen (the renowned second century Greek physician) in front of the University. He also disproved Galen’s idea that chemical changes, such transforming one substance into another were impossible, after experimenting with Chemistry. He was thus hounded out of one university after another because he ridiculed those ancient authorities. His disruptive behaviour made himself many enemies, to the extent that in the spring of 1528, he was forced to flee for his life in the middle of the night. Nonetheless, he seemed to have restored his reputation overnight, when he published his masterwork //Der grossen Wundartzney// in 1536, and he became wealthy. Although he failed to win the respect of other scholars, he did gain fame for healing the sick. He died in mysterious circumstances at the White Horse Inn when he was 48.

**Ambroise Pare (1510-1590)**
Ambroise Pare, the ‘uneducated’ son of a country artisan, became one of, if not the greatest surgeon of the sixteenth century. At a tender age, he served an apprenticeship to a barber in French provinces, traveling to Paris where he became a surgical student at the Hotel Dieu hospital. He attained the rank of master [|barber-surgeon] in 1536, after which he joined the army as an surgeon for the next 30 years, during which time he gained reputation for his writings and his democratic treatment to soldiers of all ranks. Before his career ended, he had served as surgeon to four French kings. It was during the period of 1536-1537 that he made his first great medical discovery. He studied Vesalius’ textbook and soon made his own contribution to medicine. He developed an ointment could be applied to the wound to prevent infection, instead the traditional method of pouring boiling oil into the wound. Later, he also developed a technique for closing wounds with stitches. He was an innovator, willing to depart from established practices, and was also well known for his compassion, as well as his surgical skills. He was born in an era in which physicians considered surgery well beneath their dignity; as all cutting was left to the ‘lowly’ barber-surgeons. Because of his dissemination of surgical knowledge among the barber-surgeons of his time, and his efforts to elevate the status of surgery to a level of some prestige and professionalism, Pare is regarded as the “Father of Modern Surgery”.

**Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564)**
Born in Brussels (now Belgium) to a family long established in the area of medicine for several generations, the young Vesalius showed an early interest in anatomy. Attending the University of Louvain, he later studied medicine at the University of Paris, where he became skilled at dissection under teachers who were dedicated followers of Galen. After a stint as a military surgeon, Vesalius enrolled at the University of Padua, and received his doctor of medicine degree in 1537. He then immediately assumed a post as a professor in surgery and anatomy in Padua. Contrary to prevailing practice, he performed dissections himself during lectures, and illustrated the lesson with large, detailed anatomical charts. Vesalius’ “hands-on” approach to teaching anatomy enabled him to rectify some of Galen’s most glaring errors, as he noted obvious conflicts between what he saw in the human body, and what Galen had described. He thus made accurate drawings of the human anatomy that corrected Galen’s errors. He also wrote the //On the Fabric of the Human Body// in 1543, where he deviated from traditional practice by personally dissecting a body to illustrate what he was discussing. His anatomical treatise presented a careful examination of the individual organs and general structure of the human body. Although Vesalius correct some of Galen’s errors, he still clung to a number of Galen’s erroneous assertions, including the Greek physician’s ideas on the ebb and flow of two kinds of blood: in the veins and arteries. It was not until William Harvey’s work on the circulation of the blood that this Galenic misperception was corrected. Because his book on the structure of human body corrected some of Galen’s ideas, followers of Galen attacked him. Discouraged, Vesalius burned most of his writings and resigned from Padua in 1544. He died on the island of Zante at the age of fifty.

**William Harvey (1578-1657)**
William Harvey is considered as ‘the father of modern physiology’, as his theory of the circulation of blood laid the foundation for modern physiology. He attended Cambridge University and later at the renowned medical school at Padua (Italy), where he received a doctorate of medicine in 1602. Returning to London, he began what became a very successful medical practice while also engaging extensively in medical research. His reputation rests on his book of a radical new concept of blood circulation then: //On the Motion of the Heart and Blood//, published in 1628. Although questions had been raised in the sixteenth century about Galen’s physiological principles, no major break from his system had occurred. Harvey’s work, which was based on meticulous observations and experiments, led him to demolish the ancient Greek’s erroneous contentions. Harvey demonstrated that the heart and not the liver was the beginning point of the circulation of blood in the body, that the same blood flows in both veins and arteries, and most importantly, that the blood makes a complete circuit as it passes through the body. This provoked immediate controversy and hostility, as it contradicted the usually unquestioned teachings of Galen, whose teachings dominated medicine at that time. Although Harvey’s work dealt a severe blow to Galen’s theories, his ideas did not begin to achieve general recognition until the 1660s, when capillaries, which explained how the blood passed from the arteries to the veins, were discovered. William Harvey retired at the end of the Civil War, and lived with his brothers. He died of a stroke in 1658 in Roehampton, and was buried in the family vault at Hempstead Church in Essex.

**Marcello Malpighi (1628-1694)**
Born at Crevalcore, just outside Bologna, Italy, on March 10, 1628, Malpighi, the son of small landowners, studied medicine and philosophy at the University of Bologna. In 1655, Malpighi became a lecturer in logic at the University of Bologna; in 1656, he assumed the chair of theoretical medicine at the University of Pisa; in 1659, he returned to Bologna as lecturer in theoretical, then practical medicine; from 1662 to 1666, he held the principal chair in medicine at theUniversity of Messina; finally in 1666, he returned again to Bologna, where he remained for the rest of his teaching and research career. In 1691, at theage of sixty-three, Malpighi was called by his friend Pope Innocent XII to serve as the pontiff's personal physician. Reluctantly, Malpighi agreed and moved to Rome, where he died on November 29, 1694, in his room in the Quirinal Palace. In the second half of the seventeenth century, Marcello Malpighi used the newly invented microscope to make important discoveries about living tissues and structures, earning himself enduring recognition as a founder of scientific microscopy, histology (the study of tissues), embryology, and the science of plant anatomy. His extensive studies of the silkworm were the first full examination of insect structure; his detailed observations of chick embryos laid the foundation for microscopic embryology; and his botanical investigations established the science of plantanatomy. The amazing variety of Malpighi's microscopic discoveries piqued the interest of countless other researchers and firmly established microscopy as a science.

**Robert Hooke (1635 - 1703)**
Born on 18 July 1635 in Freshwater, Isle of Wight, Robert Hooke was the English scientist and inventor who wrote the 1665 book Micrographia, in which he coined the term "cell" for a basic biological structure. His life divides three parts: early life as a brilliant but impecunious scientific inquirer; the period after the great fire of 1666 in which he achieved great wealth and standing due to his reputation for hard work and scrupulous honesty; and later life dogged by ill-health and dominated by jealous intellectual disputes. A gifted student with a particular talent for mechanics, Hooke studied at Oxford University. A member of the Royal Society from 1663, Hooke was accomplished in astronomy, biology, physics and architecture, and his skill as an instrument maker gave him an edge over his contemporaries. He argued with [|Isaac Newton] over the nature of light and gravity, and their long-running debate is said to have left both men forever bitter toward each other. Hooke's studies of springs and elasticity led to his enunciation of "Hooke's Law" - a spring's extension is proportional to the weight hanging from it, and he is credited with inventing the balance spring that allowed for the making of small, accurate timepieces. He also invented a reflecting microscope, the universal joint, and a variety of clocks, barometers and optical devices. Although not a surveyor or architect by profession, Hooke was named London's Surveyor after the Great Fire of 1666 and, with Christopher Wren, given the task of rebuilding the city. He died on 3 March, 1703.

**Sanctorius (1561-1636)**
Also known as Santorio Santorio, was born in Capodistria (now Italy) on March 29, 1561. After graduating in medicine at the University of Padua in 1582, Sanctorius began practice in Venice. In 1587, he was appointed physician to the King of Poland, in which capacity he remained for 14 years. Upon returning from Poland, he re-established his practice in Venice. In 1611, he was called to the Chair of Theoretical Medicine at the University of Padua, where he remained until his resignation in 1629 and return to practice and research in Venice. Sanctorius was largely responsible for the entry of clinical observation and experimental medicine into the physician's domain in the late sixteenth century. Sanctorius founded the modern study of metabolism by observing the weight fluctuations in his own body over the course of a day, and during various metabolic processes such as digestion, sleeping, and eating. Sanctorius is best known for his invention of the thermometer which consisted of an enclosed vessel containing air that contracted or expanded with the temperature, forcing water to move up or down a tube with arbitrary calibrations. Sanctorius also invented an instrument for extracting bladder stones, a surgical device for the withdrawal of fluids from body cavities, an instrument for removing foreign bodies from the ear, a hygrometer to measure humidity, and a device for bathing patients in bed. He died in Venice on February 22, 1636.

**Galen (131-201 AD)**
Also known as Cladius Galenus of Pergamum, Galen was an ancient Greek physician whose views dominated European medicine for over a thousand years. Galen was born in Pergamum (modern-day Bergama, Turkey) to an architect's family. His interests were agriculture, architecture, astronomy, philosophy - until he concentrated on medicine. He studied medicine in Smyrna and Corinth and at Alexandria for a total of twelve years. He then worked as a physician in a gladiator school in Pergamum for three or four years during which he gained experience of trauma and wound treatment. The significance of Galen is that he transmitted Hippocratic medicine all the way to the renaissance. His fundamental principle of life was pneuma (air, breath) that later writers connected with the soul. Pneuma physicon (animal spirit) in the brain took care of movement, perception and senses. Pneuma zoticon (vital spirit) in the heart controlled blood and body temperature. Natural spirit in the liver handled nutrition and metabolism. He also demonstrated that arteries carry blood, not air and made first studies about nerve functions, brain and heart. However, Galen did not recognize blood circulation and thought that venous and arterial systems were separate. This view did not change before William Harvey in the 17th century. Galen’s date of death is believed to be around the year 200 to 216.

**References:**
1. __[|http://home.clara.net/rod.beavon/leonardo.htm]__ 2. [] 3. [] 4. @http://www.faqs.org/health/bios/49/Marcello-Malpighi.html 5. http://www.faqs.org/health/bios/62/William-Harvey.html6. __6. @http://www.faqs.org/health/bios/60/Andreas-Vesalius.html__ 7. __http://www.faqs.org/health/bios/81/Ambroise-Par.html __ 8. __[]__ 9. [] 10. http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/history/shp/middleages/ 11. [|http://campus.udayton.edu/~hume/Galen/galen.htm] 12. [] 13. [] 14. [] 15. [] 16. [] 17. []

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