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__History AA: MEDICINE__

 * Members:** **Claudia, Nadya, Stephanie, Siyuan, Wei Lin**

__The Medical scene before the Scientific Revolution__ ** Medieval medicine was dominated by the teachings of Greek physician Galen, who had lived in the second century A.D. He dissected animals, instead of humans, so that he could make inferences about the human anatomy, which resulted in lots of inaccuracies. He was very influential in anatomy, physiology and disease. Even when Europeans started to dissect humans to discover new informatio n, they still heavily relied on Galen's theories. Because Galen's observations mostly derived from animal dissections, he made many mistakes, especially concerning internal organs. For example, he incorrectly assumed that the rete mirabile, a plexus of blood vessels at the base of the brain in ungulate animals, was also present in humans. Galen hypothesized that there were two separate blood systems. One blood system controlled muscular activities and contained bright red blood moving upward and downward through the arteries while the other governed the digestive functions and contained dark red blood that flowed in the veins. He also believed that blood passed from one side of the wall to the other through invisible pores in the dividing wall.

Treatment of diseases was also highly influenced by Galen's doctrine of four bodily humors, blood, yellow bile, phlegm and black bile. He hypothesized that diseases were caused by the imbalance of humors that could be identified from the quantity and colour of the urine, hence the examination of the patient's urine was the chief diagnostic tool in the medieval times. __Timeline of major events__**

__Before the Scientific Revolution__
 * Year || Event ||
 * 2600 BC || The Egyptian Imhotep describes the diagnosis and treatment of 200 diseases ||
 * 500 BC || Alcmaeon of Croton distinguished veins from arteries ||
 * 460 BC || Birth of Hippocrates, the Greek father of medicine begins the scientific study of medicine and prescribes a form of aspirin ||
 * 300 BC || Diocles wrote the first known anatomy book ||
 * 280 BC || Herophilus studies the nervous system ||
 * 130 AD || Birth of Galen. Greek physician to gladiators and Roman emperors ||
 * c. 60AD || Pedanius Dioscorides writes De Materia Medica ||
 * 910 || Persian physician Rhazes identifies smallpox ||
 * 1010 || Avicenna writesThe Book of Healing and The Canon of Medicine ||
 * c. 1315 || First public dissection of a human body in Christendom ||
 * 1315 || Arabs invent ingenious bloodletting device ||
 * 1348 || Black Death kills a quarter of Europe's population ||
 * 1376 || John of Arderne devises operation for anal fistula ||
 * 1489 || Leonardo da Vinci dissects corpses ||
 * 1495 || Syphilis first described in Europe ||
 * c. 1500 || Military surgeons write first vernacular textbooks ||

__During the Scientific Revolution__


 * Year || Event ||
 * 1510 || Birth of Ambroise Pare ||
 * 1513 || Rösslin publishes first textbook for midwives ||
 * 1514? || Birth of Bartolemeo Eustachi (some sources say he was born in 1500) ||
 * 1514 || Birth of Andreas Vesalius ||
 * c. 1520 || Paracelsus creates 'doctrine of signatures' ||
 * 1523 || Birth of Gabriele Falloppio ||
 * 1537 || Paré pioneers new treatment of wounds ||
 * 1540 || Barber-Surgeons' Company formed ||
 * c. 1550 || New World explorers bring novel medicines to Europe ||
 * 1543 || Andreas Vesalius publishes De humani corporis fabrica ||
 * 1552 || Bartolomeo Eustachi had drawn and engraved 47 plates showing the human skeleton and muscles ||
 * 1561 || Gabriele Fallopia published Observationes anatomicae, which contained many descriptions of his anatomical research ||
 * 1564 || Gabriele Fallopia invents the condom ||
 * 1578 || Birth of William Harvey ||
 * c. 1580 || Chamberlen invents obstetrical forceps ||
 * 1610 || First documented Caesarian section in which mother survives ||
 * 1628 || William Harvey discovers the circulation of the blood ||
 * 1659 || Birth of Giacomo Pylarini ||
 * 1665 || Great Plague of London kills 20% of the population ||
 * 1670 || Antonie van Leeuwenhoek discovers blood cells ||
 * 1683 || Antonie van Leeuwenhoek observes bacteria ||
 * 1701 || Giacomo Pylarini was the first to successfully give intentional smallpox inoculation on the children of the English ambassador to Constantinople ||

__**What were the major discoveries and achievements?**__

In the process of dissecting human corpses, Andreas Vesalius revealed detailed information about human anatomy and corrected earlier erroneous views made by Galen. Vesalius believed that understanding anatomy was crucial to performing surgery, so he dissected human corpses himself (unusual for the time). His anatomical charts detailing the blood and nervous systems, produced as a reference aid for his students, were copied so often that he was forced to publish them to protect their accuracy. In 1543 he published De Humani Corporis Fabrica, transforming the subject of anatomy. He is widely known as the founder of contemporary anatomy. The development of modern neurology also began with Vesalius, who described the anatomy of the brain. Although he had little idea of the function, thinking that it lay mainly in the ventricles, diagnosis improved though with little benefit to health.
 * 1a. Human Anatomy (1538)**

Gabriele Fallopio greatest discoveries were the structures of the male and female reproductive system, particularly fallopian tube. He also carried out detailed studies of the ear, small intestine, ocular muscles and cerebral nerves, eventually describing his findings in his book, //Observationes Anatomicae,// in 1561.
 * 1b. Human Anatomy (1561)**

Bartolomeo Eustachi observed and made 47 plates of detailed engravings of the skeletal and muscular systems by the year 1552, although only eight were published in his lifetime. In addition, he was the first person to provide accurate and detailed descriptions of the teeth, as well as the adrenal gland, thoracic duct, and the auditory tube.
 * 1c. Human Anatomy (1552)**

William Harvey discovers that blood circulates through the body and names the heart as the organ responsible for pumping the blood. Harvey understood the mechanism of venous circulation, and postulated that the heart is a pump which makes the blood circulate from the arteries to the veins. He identifies the functions of different parts of the heart. His groundbreaking work, Anatomical Essay on the Motion of the Heart and Blood in Animals, published in 1628, lays the groundwork for modern physiology. However, he was unable to demonstrate the nexus between the arteries and the veins the capillaries could not be observed with the naked eye.  During his lifetime Van Leeuwenhoek ground over 500 optical lenses. He also created over 400 different types of microscopes, only nine of which still exist today. His microscopes were made of silver or copper metal frames holding hand-ground lenses. Those that have survived the years are able to magnify up to 275 times. It is suspected, though, that Van Leeuwenhoek possessed some microscopes that could magnify up to 500 times. He significantly improved the design of the microscope. His high quality microscopes enabled him to observe and describe single celled organisms, which he originally referred to as //animalcules//, and which we now refer to as microorganisms. He was also the first to record microscopic observations of muscle fibers, bacteria, spermatozoa and blood flow in capillaries.
 * 2. Blood Circulation (1628)**
 * 3. Improvement of the Microscope and the discovery of bacteria**

Ambroise Pare, often credited as the father of surgery, pioneered new surgical techniques. For example, he introduced the ligature of arteries instead of cauterisation during amputation. In the field of obstetrics, he also revived the practice of the podalic version.
 * 4. Surgery and Obstetrics (1537-mid 16th century)**

Giacomo Pylarini pioneered immunisation, and his greatest achievement was the successful smallpox inoculation given to children.
 * 5. Immunization (1701):**

**6. Nose Reconstruction**
Gaspare Tagliacozzo (1545-1599) learnt the method of nose reconstruction from the "Norcini" who operated in southern Italy. It was important to have nasal reconstruction as the nose was disfigured and destroyed by various diseases such as tuberculosis and syphilis as well as mutilations caused by firearms during those times. His method was to use a skin graft from the arm and use it for the reconstruction of the nose. Soon after his death, nasal reformation was banned as it was a sign of defiance to God. It was then rediscovered in 19th century when the Indian system of plastic surgery was in use.

Sanctorius Sanctorius (1561-1636) discovered about metabolism and understood that sweating and perspiring had the purpose of eliminating heat. He was also the first to measure the pulse and use a thermometer to measure the body temperature.
 * 7. Metabolism and human body**

Gaspare Aselli (1581-1626) discovered the chyliferous vessels. He showed how diaphragmatic excursions occurred and how they could be stopped with the resection of the phrenic nerve, through the dissection of a dog's abdomen. However, the chyliferous vessels could only be observed when the dog had consumed food, which then revealed a network of chyliferous veins and he demonstrated their existence to his colleagues. A great mistake he made was confusing the lymph node with and organ known as the pancrea of Aselli.
 * 8. Chyliferous vessels**


 * __Why were these discoveries important/ significant?__**


 * Human anatomy (Andreas Vesalius):** First of all, Andreas Vesalius contradicted many of [|Galen] ’s theories, just one of the many scientists in the scientific revolution whose discoveries overthrew those of ancient authorities, leading to "new knowledge". For example, Vesalius proved that the mandible (lower jaw) consisted of one bone, whereas Galens had thought it was two separate bones. These discoveries led to more accurate knowledge of anatomy. Andreas Vesalius' reliance on his own observations for scientific discovery was a significant break with medieval practises, and contributed to the development of observation as an essential portion of the scientific method we know today. His meticulous and detailed anatomical drawings had clear descriptions that were unprecendented and set a new standard for future medical books, and promoted meticulous observation and representation, an important aspect of modern scientific investigation. For example, as seen in [|_http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Vesalius_Fabrica_p190.jpg__], he drew a human corpse in detail, such as drawing the muscular system and skeletal system. Since then, anatomical drawings have been more intricate.


 * Human Anatomy (Gabriele Falloppio):** His discoveries sustained the development in the knowledge of accurate human anatomy. His discoveries also highlighted how the nature of scientific discovery was cumulative, as new knowledge was constantly added to existing knowledge.


 * Human Anatomy (Bartolomeo Eustachi):** Similar to those of Falloppio, his discoveries expanded the amount of information in the field of anatomy. His engravings of the skeletal and muscular systems portrayed two very important structural components of the human body, and their publishing allowed for widespread study of these systems.

**Blood Circulation:** In the past, the heart was thought of as being a mere "productor of heat", while the function of its affluents, the arteries, was that of cooling the blood as the lungs "...fanned and cooled the heart itself". To put it into more precise terms, it was thought that during dilation the arteries sucked in air, while during their contraction they discharged vapours through pores in the flesh and skin. Of course, this idea seems to have been founded upon an overall incorrect apprehension of the nature of the heart. William Harvey accurately described the systemic circulation and properties of blood being pumped around the body by the heart. Harvey's work, which was based on meticulous observations and experiments, led him to demolish the ancient Greek's erroneous contentions. He demonstrated that the heart and not the liver was the beginning point of the circulation of blood in the body, that the same blood flows in both veins and arteries and most importantly, that the blood makes a complete circuit as it passes through the body. His discovery was extremely important, as it accurately described one of the fundamental processes that were necessary for the body to function. In conclusion, Harvey's theory of the circulation of blood laid the foundation for modern physiology.


 * Improvement of microscope and Discovery of Bacteria:** The improvement of the microscope was significant in allowing better observation of microorgansims, in the case of medicine particularly cells, which were the building blocks of the human body. This made possible a better understanding of the microscale structures and processes of the body, from which macroscale functions could be better understood. The discovery of bacteria revealed another life form, and more importantly another agent of illness to humans. With this discovery, the improved microscope also created opportunities for studying bacteria and how they affected living cells, creating a better understanding of certain illnesses in humans.


 * Treatment (Surgery & Ointment): Improved surgical techniques introduced by Ambroise Pare allowed for a higher quality of treatment for patients whose conditions required surgery to allow recovery. Without the technique of closing wounds with stitches, many would have died from wound infections. Furthermore, without ointment, we would have to undergo the excruciating pain of having boiling oil poured into a raw wounds.

****Obstetrics:** Ambroise Pare's revival of the podalic version made it possible for babies to be delivered safely and with as little implication as possible to the mother and child.


 * Immunization:** Pylarini's success in his attempt to administer immunisation to children paved the way for the science of immunisation. Through this achievement it was recognised that people could be protected from a disease through the intentional contraction of a mild form of the disease. Much later developments and widespread application based on this initial principle pioneered by Pylarini have protected many from dangerous diseases, such as tuberculosis and polio.


 * Plastic Surgery: **  Tagliacozzi revived the technique of nasal reconstruction and is considered to be the pioneer of modern plastic surgery, publicized Brancas' method of skin grafting. Although he repaired soldiers' facial battle wounds, the most common reason for nose deformities at that time was tissue infection due to syphilis. In 1597, Tagliacozzi published his work in "De curtorum chirurgia per insitionem," and in so doing, transformed plastic surgery from a trade service to a scientific procedure

**__People involved in the advancement of medicine during the Scientific Revolutio__**n

**Andreas Vesalius** ( December 31, 1514 - October 15, 1564) Andreas Vesalius is known as the founder of modern human anatomy and wrote one of the most famous and influential books of all time, [|De humani corporis fabric_]. The Fabrica is a work of art, in all senses of the term, yet it deals with a subject, anatomy, in which illustration had played at best a minor role. Its message is conveyed in words, but also in images.

[|Book I of the Fabrica] focuses on bones because Vesalius felt that the skeletal system was of crucial significance to the whole body as it was the framework of the body, it supported and controlled movement. He first writes about the skull, where he accurately describes the vestibule in the interior of the temporal bone, and then writes about the jaw, which he finds out that the lower jaw is made of only one bone, and discovers that the sternum (breastbone) is consisted of three parts, then to the spine, and downwards through the body. Vesalius ends with a chapter detailing how to prepare and mount a skeleton, and with a brief account of the total number of bones in the body.

The [|second book] is devoted to the muscles, tendons and ligaments of the body. In it Vesalius carefully explains how to dissect the muscles, and how to macerate them in order to show their connective tissues and to distinguish them from tendons. Muscles are greatly varied, in size, shape, origin, insertion, colour, and the arrangement of their fibres. Vesalius’ solution is to treat the muscles in isolation to understand their dynamics. He beautifully describes the position of each muscle of the body as well as providing information on their respective functions. The following book is devoted to the arterial and venous systems. This is perhaps the weakest of all the books, for Vesalius’ dissections did not allow him to go much beyond his predecessors, except in his discovery, made in late 1537, that the inferior mesenteric vein entered the portal, not the caval system. He did suggest that size of vessels implied that the caval system did not take its origin from the liver, contrary to Galen’s theory, but did not develop the idea further. Perhaps, he felt that this observation was not as important or significant when compared to the observations he made about the skeletal and muscular system. The illustrations become fewer in Book IV, as the textual description becomes thicker, in part because there are fewer novelties to be found in the account of the brain and nerves which forms the subject of the fourth book. Vesalius only paraphrased what Galen had said. Vesalius did come to a conclusion that nerves were not hollow, after studying the optic nerve.

The fifth and sixth books deal with the abdominal and thoracic cavities respectively, and with the organs that they contain. Book VI focuses largely on the heart and lungs. The discussion of the heart stresses the fibrous nature of the heart’s substance, although Vesalius denies that it could be described as muscular and suggests a model for the action of the fibres on the heart itself. His most significant observations would be on the septum as he argues that its pits do not stretch all the way through the thick membrane. Hence, for blood to pass from one side to the other, passages that cannot be seen by the naked eye would exist. Vesalius disproved Galen’s belief that the liver consisted of five lobs, instead he discovered that the liver was one lobe.

His final book reveals which contradicted what medieval and contemporary theorists thought which was that the brain functions in localized areas within interlocking ventricles. He is skeptical towards Galenic’s theory which was that the final product of blood is animal spirits. These books contained everything that Vesalius had discovered. Summarizing, by dissecting human corpses, Vesalius discovered and made new claims on the Skeletal system, Muscular System, Vascular and Circulatory System, Nervous System, Abdominal Organs, Heart and the Brain.

Gabriele Falloppio was a student of Andreas Vesalius. He made several important anatomical discoveries and improved upon many of his predecessor’s findings. His most significant discovery was the Fallopian tube which is named in his honor. He specialised in the male and female reproductive system and even developed a condom, which was a linen sheath to prevent transmission of syphilis. Falloppio proclaimed: "I tried the experiment [the use of condoms] on 1,100 men, and I call immortal God to witness that not one of them was infected." Moreover, he was the first anatomist to describe the semicircular canals ( __chorda tympani__ ), the circular folds of the small intestine and the inguinal band (Poupart's ligament). He described the lacrimal ducts in the eye and gave a detailed account of the ethmoid bone and its cells in the nose. He corrected Vesalius's findings on the course of the cerebral arteries, and provided a more detailed description of the [|ocular muscles] and [|cerebral nerves]. He was the first to use an aural speculum for diagnosis and treatment of diseases of the ear.
 * Gabriele Falloppio (** 1523 - October 9, 1562)

**Ambroise Paré (** 1510 - 20 December 1590) He was a French surgeon and is considered one of the fathers of surgery. He was a leader in surgical techniques and battlefield medicine, especially the treatment of wounds. He was also an anatomist and the inventor of several surgical instruments.

Pare developed an ointment that could be applied to prevent infection in the wounds instead of the traditional method of pouring boiling oil into the wound which was an extremely painful remedy.

He introduced the ligature of arteries instead of cauterization (burning of a body part to remove or close part of it, it was usually used to prevent severe blood loss.) during amputation. A ligature consists of a piece of thread tied around an anatomical structure, usually a blood vessel or another hollow structure to shut it off. The principal of ligation is attributed to Galen, although it was later rediscovered some 1500 years later by him.

Paré was also an important figure in the progress of obstetrics in the middle of the 16th century. He revived the practice of podalic version (the fetus is turned within the womb such that one or both feet emerges first during childbirth), and showed how even in cases of head presentation, surgeons with this operation could often deliver the infant safely, instead of having to dismember the infant and extract the infant piecemeal.

Giacomo Pylarini was a Greek physician. His discoveries were significant as he was the first to successfully give intentional smallpox inoculation on the children of the English ambassador to Constantinople in 1701, by scratching the vein of a healthy person and pressing a small amount of matter, taken from a smallpox pustule of a person with mild attack into the would, outside of Turkey to prevent further spreading of the disease. This early immunization effort was called "variolation". For this, as well as some of his other scientific investigations, Pylarini is considered to be the world's first immunologist. **William Harvey** (1 April 1578 – 3 June 1657) ‘The animal’s heart is the bases of its life, its chief member, the sun of its microcosm: on the heart all activity depends. From the heart all its liveliness and strength arise’.
 * Giacomo Pylarini (** 1659 - 1718)

William Harvey attended Cambridge University and later Padua, which was one of the best medical schools in his times. He received a doctorate of medicine in 1602. challenged Galen’s theory about the circulatory system. He explained what happens when our heart beats and how does blood move around our body. In 1628, he published his description of the circulation of the blood. He had experimented on live animals and dissected the bodies of executed criminals. Through observation and reasoning, Harvey concluded that the heart acted as a pump that forced blood around the body through arteries. Veins would then carry blood that collect waste products back to the heart to be recycled. Harvey realised that there were valves in the veins so as to prevent blood from travelling back the wrong way to the heart. In addition, he discovered that the right ventricle pumps blood to the lungs while the left ventricle pumps blood round the body. He examined the septum and found no holes in it, contrary to popular belief.

He published all his findings into a book named "De Motu Cordis", Harvey analyses the arteries, showing how their pulsation depends upon the contraction of the left ventricle, while the contraction of the right ventricle propels its charge of blood into the pulmonary artery. He reiterates the fact that these two ventricles move together almost simultaneously and not independently like had been thought previously by his predecessors. This discovery was made while observing the heart of animals such as the eel and several other types of fish. In addition, he studied countless of other animals like the snail, the invisible shrimp, the chick before its hatching and even the pigeon. This shows his determination and perseverance to discover new facts about our human body and to strive for accuracy and precision, truly exhibiting the traits of a good scientist. Harvey also witnessed the heart's ability to recover from fatigue when he placed a wet finger of saliva on a dead pigeon's heart, and witnessed a transitory but incontrovertible pulsation.  Harvey was the first doctor to use quantitative and observation methods simultaneously in his medical investigations. For example, Harvey used quantitative methods to measure the capacity of the ventricles. Harvey was also the first to suggest that humans and other mammals reproduced via the fertilisation of an egg by sperm. It took a further two centuries before a mammalian egg was finally observed, but nonetheless Harvey's theory won credibility during his lifetime.

Bartolomeo Eustachi was an anatomist and his most famous contribution was the drawings and engravements of 47 plates that showed the human skeleton and (called the[| Anatomical Engravings] ). However, they were only available 140 years after his death and only eight plates were printed with text during his lifetime while all of the plates ended up in the Vatican Library. Eustachi’s drawings are sometimes more accurate than [|Vesalius work], but definitely not as artistically drawn. If Eustachi’s entire collection of plates had been published ten years after Vesalius, Eustachi could have been honoured as a cofounder of modern anatomical study. Eustachi was the first to accurately describe the anatomy of the teeth in detail and the phenomena of the first and second dentition. He is the first who described the internal and anterior muscles of the [|malleus] and the [|stapedius], and the complicated figure of the [|cochlea]. In addition, he published the first accounts of the adrenal gland and thoracic duct as well as the first accurate description of the auditory tube ("[|Eustachian tube] ") which links the middle ear to the throat.
 * Bartolomeo Eustachi** (1500 or 1514 - August 27, 1574)

 Antonie van Leeuwenhoek

Antonie van Leeuwenhoek is commonly known as the “father of microbiology” and considered to be the first microbiologist. He started as an apprentice in a dry goods store where magnifying glasses were used to count the threads in cloth. He was inspired by the glasses used by drapers to inspect the quality of cloth. He taught himself new methods for grinding and polishing tiny lenses of great curvature which gave magnifications up to 270x diameters, the finest known at that time. These lenses led to the building of Anton Van Leeuwenhoek's [|__microscopes__] considered the first practical microscopes. Anton Van Leeuwenhoek was the first to see and describe bacteria, yeast plants, the teeming life in a drop of water, and the circulation of blood corpuscles in capillaries. He took samples of plaque from his own teeth and mixed them with water. When he looked at the mixture through his microscope he saw what he called "many very little living animalcules." These were some of the first recorded observations of what today we would call bacteria. Leeuwenhoek found that these were killed when he drank hot coffee.

Gaspare Tagliacozzi Gaspare Tagliacozzi was an Italian surgeon based at the University of Bologna, one of the great medical centres of the 1500s. He became well- known for his skill in reconstructive surgery, and he also improved the methods developed in Italy in 1400s. The surgery methods were usually used to repair noses that were amputated during war or disfigured by diseases such as tuberculosis and syphilis. The "Italian method" of reconstruction was to use a flap of skin from the arm called the pedicle, using specially designed instruments, which was then attached to the nose. The pedicle was then severed from the arm and after 14 days the attached skin was shaped such that it resembled the nose.

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He became famous throughout Europe and people came from all over to be cured by him. He did not confine his expertise to rhinoplasty but also wrote a book detailing reconstructive surgery procedures for lips and ears. After his death, his work was continued by a student, but for not much longer. The Catholic Morals became stricter and they forbade the reconstruction of body parts as they believed that doing so was against God's will. His corpse was then removed from the consecrated cemetry and reburied in an deconsecrated area, and the student was being imprisoned. However, his works were, thanks his treatise on plastic surgery (DE CHIRURGIA CURTORUM). Plastic surgery was rediscovered only in the 19th century at the time when the Indian system of plastic surgery was in use, which was simpler, but also much more disfiguring. This consisted of taking a piece of skin from the forehead and placing it on the nose.======


 * Santorio Santorio**

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Santorio Santorio (March 29, 1561 [|Koper]  –February 22, 1636 [|Venice] <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">), who was also known as Santorio Santorii, Sanctorius of Padua, was an <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">[|Italian] <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">[|physiologist] <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">, <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">[|physician] <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">, and <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">[|professor] <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">. He conducted experiments in temperature respiration and weight as a professor in Padua. He stduied what perspiration and discovered metabolism. ======

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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Over a period of thirty years, Sanctorius weighed himself, everything he consumed as well as his urine and faeces. He compared the weights of what he had eaten to the mass of his waste products, the latter being considerably smaller. He produced his theory of insensible perspiration as an attempt to account for the difference. His findings had little scientific value, but he is still celebrated for his empirical methodology. The "weighing chair" which he constructed and employed during this experiment is also famous. ======

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">He designed the clinical thermometer, which he introduced in his <span style="font-family: sans-serif,helvetica,sans-serif;">//<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Sanctorii Sanctorii Commentaria in primam fen primi libri Canonis Avicennae // <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">, a commentary on <span style="font-family: sans-serif,helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">[|Avicenna] <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">'s <span style="font-family: sans-serif,helvetica,sans-serif;">//<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">[|The Canon of Medicine] // <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">. In addition, he also invented a device which he called the <span style="font-family: sans-serif,helvetica,sans-serif;">//<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">[|pulsilogium] // <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> for measuring the pulse which was the first machine system in medical history. A century later another physician, de la Croix, used the pulsilogium to test cardiac function. Sanctorius also invented an early <span style="font-family: sans-serif,helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">[|waterbed] <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">. In 1614, he wrote <span style="font-family: sans-serif,helvetica,sans-serif;">//<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">De statica medicina // <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">, a medical text that saw five publications through 1737.

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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The history of skin grafts, <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-decoration: none;">[|Journal of Drugs in Dermatology] <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">, <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-decoration: none;">[|Dec, 2002] <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> by <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-decoration: none;">[|Alysa R. Herman]